LTE Networks Essay Example

LTE Networks Essay LTE Networks Name: Institution: LTE Networks We will write a custom essay sample on LTE Networks specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on LTE Networks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on LTE Networks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer 4G is the new generation of wireless networks that has evolved from the third generation of mobile broadband communication. It is based on integrating terminals, networks and applications to fulfill increased user demand. 4G comprises LTE technology, HSPA+ and WiMax technologies. It is a general term coined by the ITU due to the advancements of the respective technologies relative to the original 3G networks. LTE systems have been designed to correct the numerous flaws related to 3G systems. The LTE systems have also been targeted to provide new services for instance; HD Video streaming and high quality voice communication. A term used to describe 4G technology is MAGIC. Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere, Global mobility support, Integrated wireless solutions and Customized personal service. LTE mobile networks are expected to provide high usability, global coverage, and easier broadband connectivity. This will make it easier for Telecom companies to expand coverage and consumption to areas previously not covered by 3G networks. High network capacity and low cost user-oriented services are also expected with the rolling out of LTE services. 4G communications are based on the Open Wireless Architecture (OWA). This will ensure that a single terminal can seamlessly connect to local high-speed wireless systems. For instance, when in homes, airports or shopping malls, the terminal can switch to present wireless LAN networks. When the user moves to a mobile zone i.e. a highway, the terminal can automatically switch to wireless mobile networks e.g. WCDMA or GPRS. Implementation of high performance 4G broadband necessitates use of multiple antennas, at the base station and subscriber module. Multiple antenna technology enables high capacities suited for multimedia applications e.g. streaming videos. These technologies also increase range and reliability of such networks considerably. OFDM is preferred to single carrier solutions in implementation of LTE networks. This is due to lower complexity of equalizers for high delay spread channels. A broadband signal is broken down into several narrow band carriers (tones). Each carrier is more robust to multi-path propagation. A cyclic prefix is added to maintain orthogonality within the tones. The prefix usually has a length greater than the expected delay spread. With proper coding and interleaving across frequencies, multi-path is transformed into an OFDM system advantage. This is by yielding frequency diversity. OFDM can be efficiently implemented by use of Fast Fourier Transform (FFTs) algorithms at both the transmitter and receiver. At the receiver, FFT algorithms reduce the channel response to a multiplicative constant, on a tone-by-tone basis. With multiple input and multiple output (MIMO), the channel response becomes a matrix. As each tone can be independently equalized, the complexity of space-time equalizers is entirely avoided. Multi-path is maintained as an advantage for a MIMO-OFDM system. This is because frequency selectivity caused by multi-path significantly improves the rank distribution of the channel matrices across frequency tones. Therefore, capacity is increased to BTS-on-a-chip or System-in-Package. Background Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has become a popular technique for transmission of signals over wireless channels. It has been implemented in various ways for instance; digital audio broadcasting (DAB), digital video broadcasting( DVB-T), the IEEE 802.11a, a local area network (LAN) standard and the IEEE 802.16a, a metropolitan network (MAN) standard. OFDM is also being implemented for dedicated short-range communications (DSRC). It will facilitate roadside to vehicle communications as a potential candidate for fourth generation (4G) wireless systems. The man goal in development of next-generation wireless communication systems is increasing bit-rate (link throughput) as well as network capacity. OFDM translates a frequency-selective channel into a parallel collection of frequency flat sub channels. When knowledge of a channel is available at the transmitter, the OFDM transmitter can adapt its signaling methodology to meet the channel. Since OFDM utilizes a large set of narrowly spaced sub-channels, these adaptive strategies can approach the ideal water pouring capacity of a frequency-selective channel. This is achieved by use of adaptive bit loading technologies. Here, different sized signal constellations are transmitted onto the sub-carriers. All MIMO-OFDM receivers must perform time synchronization; frequency offset estimation and correction and finally, parameter estimation. Generally, this is carried out by use of a preamble composed of several training sequences. Important improvements in throughput can be achieved when multiple antennas are implemented at both the transmitter and receiver side, especially in a rich scattering environment. This has been shown for wireless communication links in flat-fading as well as frequency-selective fading channels, multiple-transmit, multiple-receive antenna, i.e. MIMO. For portrayal purposes, the techniques can be split into two groups: space-time coding (STC) AND space division multiplexing (SDM).STC improves the performance of the communication system by coding over the different transmitter branches. However, SDM achieves a higher throughput by transmitting independent data streams on the different transmit branches and at the same carrier frequency. A potential application of the MIMO principle is the next generation Wireless-LAN technology. The current WLAN standards are IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11g. These standards are based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). A potential high data rate extension of these standards could be based on MIMO. This leads to the promising combination of the data rate enhancement of SDM and the high spectral efficiency and robustness against frequency-selective fading and narrowband interference of OFDM. Wireless LAN systems have various advantages. One is that they are mainly deployed in indoor environments. Such environments are typically characterized by a richly scattered multi-path Implementation Preamble W-LAN is a packet-switched system with a random access protocol. This means that a receiver possesses no prior knowledge about packet-arrival times. The random nature of the arrival times as well as the high data rates necessitate the synchronization to be completed shortly after the start of the reception of a packet. To enable ‘quick’ synchronization, the data packet is normally preceded with a known sequence known as ‘the preamble’. The preamble is carefully designed to provide enough information for efficient packet detection, frequency offset estimation, symbol timing, and channel estimation. Once there is accurate knowledge of the MIMO channel elements, the MIMO processing can separate the signal components originating from the different transmit antennas. To approximate the MIMO channel, it is necessary that the sub-channels from the TX antennas be uniquely different from the RX antennas. For that to be achieved, the preambles on the different TX antennas must be orthogonal as well as shift-orthogonal, at least for the channel length. Time Synchronization: 1.) Frame Detection/Coarse Timing: The purpose for frame detection (FD) is to recognize the preamble in order to detect arrival of a packet. This preamble detection algorithm can also be used as a coarse timing (CT) algorithm. This is because it inherently provides a rough estimate of the packet’s starting point. Different data-aided FD algorithms have been proposed for OFDM. For instance, a simple MIMO extension of Schmidl’s timing offset algorithm was proposed. All these algorithms are based n the correlation between the repeated symbols constituting the preamble. 2.) Symbol Timing: The symbol timing in an OFDM system chooses where to place the start of the FFT window within the OFDM symbol. An OFDM system exhibits a guard interval (GI), making it somewhat robust against timing offsets. Non-optimal symbol timing will result into more ISI and inter-carrier interference (ICI) in delay spread environments. This will result in a decrease in performance. C. Frequency Synchronization It is necessary for the frequency synchronization to correct the frequency offset. This is due to the difference in oscillator frequencies at the transmitter and the receiver. D. Channel Estimation When time synchronization is performed at the receiver and after the received signals are corrected for the frequency offset, the channel can be estimated using the known training symbols within the preamble. When the timing is performed correctly, it can be known which received samples correspond to the timing part. Synchronization Tracking using Pilot Sub-carriers The processing of the preamble deals with the initial synchronization of the MIMO OFDM receiver. However, it is very likely that the frequency offset will vary during the packet’s reception. This makes solely initial frequency synchronization insufficient. Furthermore, the system will experience phase noise (PN) invoked by the combination of RF oscillator and the phase-locked loop (PLL). MIMO Detection Algorithms: Once a packet is recognized and the synchronization and channel estimation are done, the FFT begins retrieving the sub-carrier signals. MIMO detection is applied to these signals on a sub-carrier basis. In terms of spatial multiplexing, the MLD-based detection algorithm PAC SOMLD executes well. MIMO-OFMD Design Constraints The key channel characteristics influencing wireless broadband systems are channel dispersion, Rician K-factor, the Doppler effect, cross-polarization discrimination, antenna correlation and the condition number. Doppler Effect: The fixed wireless channel Doppler spectrum is significantly different from the mobile channel Doppler spectrum. For fixed wireless channels, it was found that the Doppler is in the 0.1-2 Hz frequency range. It also has close to exponential or rounded spectrum shape. However, for mobile wireless channels, the Doppler can be at around 100 Hz. It also has the Jake’s spectrum. Cross-Polarization Discrimination: The cross polarization discrimination (XPD) is defined as the ratio of the co-polarized average received power P2 to the cross-polarized average received power; P. XPD measures the separation between two transmission channels that use variant polarization orientations. The larger the XPD, the less energy is coupled between the cross-polarized channels. The XPD values were found to decrease with increasing distance. Antenna Correlation: Antenna correlation plays a paramount role in single-input multi-output (SIMO), multi-input single-output (MISO), and MIMO systems. If the complex correlation coefficient is relatively high (e.g. higher than 0.7), diversity and multiplexing gains can be significantly reduced (or completely diminished in the case of correlation of 1). Generally, it was discovered that the complex correlation coefficients are low, in the 0.1-0.5 range for properly selected base station and receiver antenna configurations. Condition Number: The condition number can be described as a ratio of the maximum and minimum Eigen values of the MIMO channel matrix. Large capacity gains from spatial multiplexing operations in MIMO wireless systems are possible. However, this is only when the statistical distribution of condition numbers mostly contains low values. LOS conditions often create undesirable MIMO matrix conditions (i.e. high condition numbers) that can be mitigated by use of dual-polarized antennas. For low BTS antennas, most propagation conditions are non-LOS with a considerable amount of scattering, in which case the multiplexing gains of MIMO systems are incredibly significant. Current obstacles Despite the aforementioned improvements over traditional 3G networks, 4G (specifically, LTE) faces numerous obstacles in its implementation today. First, its throughput though advantageous, put it at a huge disadvantage. The fast speeds provided risk network congestion due to growing popularity of mobile broadband. This is accentuated by the stagnant growth in capture of spectrum capacity. Modern wireless technologies also have performance limited to signal quality. Secondly, pricing has been used as a deterrent by Telecoms companies due to network capacity constraints. A gigabyte goes for around $10. Roaming also poses a problem to LTE technologies. This is because different countries use different LTE network bands. Consequently, mobile devices will most likely fall back to 3G, which is universal. Mobile broadband is mostly consumed by smartphones and tablets. LTE chips require significantly more power than their 3G counterparts do to run. Therefore, battery life comes up as a problem in early smartphones. This is accentuated by the fact that LTE phones consume data faster than their 3G counterparts do. Disadvantages LTE has several disadvantages. One, it is very expensive to set up. For starters, it requires a lot more base stations than their LMR equivalents (Land Mobile Radio). Secondly, LTE equipment is quite expensive to purchase and deploy. It requires a very skilled to implement. Such high costs force the Telecoms operators to pass them on to their customers. To use LTE networks, it is necessary for consumers to purchase new cell phones to make use of new network infrastructure. The LTE standard currently supports only packet switching, as it is an all-IP network. GSM, UMTS and CDMA networks however, circuit-switch their voice calls. This will force carriers to re-engineer their voice call networks, further driving up LTE adoption costs. The Future Current adoption of 4G is not as widespread as 3G. However, its future is already being seen by recent developments. In January 2013, the ITU approved two new standards; LTE-Advanced and Wireless MAN-Advanced. LTE-Advanced will succeed current LTE networks while WiMax networks will be followed by Wireless MAN-Advanced. LTE-Advanced has been designed to meet the current constraints facing LTE especially carrier capacity. It will not necessarily increase consumer speeds past LTE’s 100Mbps. However, it will improve the overall experience. LTE-Advanced will also feature four or more antennas in a mobile device. This will potentially boost speeds experienced and their reliability. However, current applications may not necessitate an increase in network speeds.

ABEKA VOCABULARY, SPELLING, POETRY IV QUIZ 9A Essays

ABEKA VOCABULARY, SPELLING, POETRY IV QUIZ 9A Essays ABEKA VOCABULARY, SPELLING, POETRY IV QUIZ 9A Paper ABEKA VOCABULARY, SPELLING, POETRY IV QUIZ 9A Paper Essay Topic: Poetry censure to express disapproval or condemnation divulge to reveal a secret; to make known enamor to inflame with love; to charm, fascinate feign to put on or give a false appearance of; to fabricate abate to lessen in force or intensity to be eaten away gradually, as by chemical action corrode to kidnap or unlawfully carry a person off by force abduct to add fictitious details embellish to bring peace, often by satisfying demands appease to express sympathy with another in his affliction condole spell each spoken word completely spell each spoken word politician spell each spoken word grammar spell each spoken word specimen spell each spoken word Portuguese spell each spoken word inoculate spell each spoken word playwright spell each spoken word apparatus spell each spoken word hemorrhage spell each spoken word recommend

A simple convenient DNA collection and storage method for GWAS Essay

A simple convenient DNA collection and storage method for GWAS analysis using FTA - Essay Example Fujita (2006). It comprises of a cellulose-based matrix containing chemicals for cell lysis and nucleic acid preservation.   The chemicals are activated when a biological fluid contacts the surface.   An additional feature of this chemical treatment is bacterial and viral inactivation.   Not only are the biosamples protected from microbial growth contamination, but the user is also protected from any potential biohazards present in the biosample.   These features make FTA paper an ideal medium for transporting bioamples at room temperature without the requirement of a biohazard shipping label. FTA paper is a commonly used substrate for DNA storage in a number of industries such as pharmaceutics, law enforcement, agriculture and governmental regulatory agencies.   This medium has been available commercially for a number of years by Whatman Inc., who have demonstrated that DNA stored on FTA paper has a long, useful lifetime.   In fact, suitability for use of DNA recovered from up to seventeen year-old biosamples in human identification assays has been demonstrated, inarguably. and aniline dyes; or liver tumours and vinyl chloride). The high prevalence of limb malformations in newborns in the late 1950s was ultimately found to be due to the mothers’ ingestion of thalidomide during pregnancy. German National Ethics Council (2004). However genetic epidemiology studies not individuals but population groups. Biobanks serve as large molecular repositories where a large amount of data in the form of DNA from diverse sources can be compared. For example, the United Kingdom BioBank intends to archive the genetic material of 5,00,000 individuals as mentioned in UK Biobank literature. Large series of samples from donors (several hundred to several thousand) with a given multifactorial hereditary condition – such as hypertension, cancer, diabetes, asthma or epilepsy – are compared with corresponding series from healthy donors. The

Business Regulations and practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Business Regulations and practices - Essay Example The offeror, in this case Sullivan, may need to prove beyond any reasonable doubt that he was not in the right frame of mind when he made the offer. if he does, a court of law may render the contract invalid, otherwise it remains binding and Sullivan must sell his 40-acre tract of land to Ball for $60000 (Elliott et al 3). In contract laws, both making an offer by the offeror and acceptance or rejection of the offer by the offeree must be communicated to both parties. The offeree must receive the offer, and the offeror must receive a communication from the offeree notifying him/her or the acceptance or rejection of the offer. Chernek makes an offer to sell used farm equipment to Bollow for $10000. Bollow receives the offer, which is okay. Chernek dies before Bollow accepts the offer. Bollow accepts the offer after the offeror had died, but the Chernek is no longer living to be able to receive the acceptance. There is no valid contract in this case. Bollow must accept that there is no more Chernek to complete the contract by receiving his acceptance (Elliott et al 4). When the equipment were lost to an accidental fire disaster, and it is proven that the fire was indeed purely accidental, the contract becomes invalid because it even happened prior to Bollow sending her acceptance of the offer to Chernek. Since the equipment that would been the subject of a contract no longer exist, and they are burnt down before there is the acceptance bit of the deal, the contract is instantly rendered null and void even if Bollow sends the acceptance. Chernek died before the acceptance of the offer by Bollow. The general rule is that, if the offeror dies before the offeree accepts the contract, it remains terminated. It is evident acceptance was only communicated after Chernek’s death; hence the contract was terminated. What makes

The Agrotourism In Malaysia Tourism Essay

The Agrotourism In Malaysia Tourism Essay Agrotourism is also known as agritourism and farm-based tourism. Agrotourism is actually the collaborations between tourism and agriculture since the visitor go to travelling as tourist to enjoy, relaxation, spend time and money for joyfullness and happiness in addition to visiting agricultural area, doing agricultural-related activities like harvesting, planting, fishing, and etc. It is a form of tourism in agricultural areas such as orchards, agroforestry farms, herbal farms and animal farms. According to World Tourism Organisation (WTO, 2002) that agrotourism is part of rural tourism and relates to tourism on farms. It gives farmers the opportunities to expand their activities and also to increase their income. Agrotourism is just a small part of rural tourism and agricultural practice worldwide, excluding in some European countries such as Austria, France, Italy and Switzerland, where the number of farms that offer some form of tourism is remarkably large. Agrotourism has differe nt definitions in different parts of the world. In Italy, it refers to farmstays. However in other parts of the world, agrotourism includes a wide range of activities which comprises of buying produce direct from a farm stand, navigating a corn maze, picking fruits, feeding animals or staying at a BB (bed and breakfast inn) on a farm. Agrotourism covers a wide range of agriculture-related activities about which visitors learn and can try them out by themselves. In ASEAN countries like Thailand, rice farming, flower growing, vegetable and herb cultivation and livestock farming are some common examples of agrotourism. Agrotourists or visitors are exposed to agricultural practices in a more leisure fashion, such as by joining picturesque canal tours or strolling through shady fruit orchards (tasting the fruits right from the trees) and working in rice farms. Almost all the agricultural research and study centres scattered throughout the country are supporting the agrotourism. Visitors are allowed to tour the centres, watch the demonstrations or take part in the hands on activities. Agrotourism and ecotourism are also closely-related. Agrotourism is when a native person or locals of the area offer the tours to their agriculture farm to allow a person to view them growing, harvesting and processing locally grown foods such as coconuts, pineapple, sugar cane, corn or any produce the person would not encounter in their home country. The farmers would also offer a homestay programme and education for the visitors. Activities that usually be offered to agrotourists or visitors: Opportunities for interaction between hosts and guests (visitors) Horseback riding Demonstrating and participating in daily farm work Providing courses in organic farming and gardening Demonstrating or offering classes in making traditional local crafts Demonstrating food processing, serving typical local dishes and offering cooking lessons Organising cultural events Offering excursions to natural and cultural attractions in the surroundings Exhibitions of agrotourist products Agrotourism in many European countries consists primarily of lodging and meals on the farm. Farm buildings are often remodeled by the farm families into rustic lodging facilities, and operate them as a type of bed and breakfast (BB) inn. Some farms especially in Switzerland, do little more than clean out a barn and spread straw on the floor, upon which people roll out sleeping bags. Other farms will provide fairly upscale accommodations for the visitors. Visitors are also able to tour the farms, help out with some farm chores and have meals with the farm family. Invariably, they experience life on the farm genuinely. In England, 23% of farms provide some type of commercial leisure service enterprise such as fishing, nature trails, picnic sites and so forth whereas 24% of English farms provide overnight accommodation and/or catering (Turner and Winter, 2003). In countries like France, hikers and cyclists can follow a network of trails around the country that leads from farm to farm. In the Netherlands and some other European countries, the farmers have centralized clearinghouses for contacting and booking stays services on working farms. Agrotourism, while new to many types of American agriculture, has been a major part of the development of the American wine industry for decades. Many wineries are part of organized regional wine tours, and some special events such as concerts, festivals, and weddings are also held for attractions. And another form of agrotourism that has been around for decades is dude ranches. Dude ranches are more common in the United States and Australian Outback. It offers vi sitors the opportunity to work on cattle ranches and the chance to take part in the cattle drives. In Australia, Canada and the Philippines, agrotourism is deemed as a growth industry. Reynolds (2005) mentions that agrotourism is a type of businesses conducted by farmers whose working agricultural operations for the enjoyment and education of visitors. Since it can complement farmers income and contribute to local economic development, agrotourism is being conceptualized as a business model in terms of product diversification. Referred to as agriturismo in Italy, sleeping in the straw in Switzerland, farmstays in New Zealand, and farm holidays in England, agrotourism is well established throughout Europe and in many other countries (Rilla, 1999a). Agrotourism enterprise as a business conducted by a farm operator or farmer for the enjoyment and education of the public beside promoting the products of the farm, and generating additional farm income (Hilchey, 1993:4). Although the farmers may not always have the time, moneys and necessary skills and expertise to develop the tourism p otential of their business, agriculture and public sector tourism organizations are always promoting agrotourism (Stephen J. and Getz, Don (eds)). Trends of Agrotourism Agrotourism was recognized as a part of ecotourism formerly as both have similar principles to conduct nature attractions (Rilla 1999). Both have been identified as the fastest tourism development model in the world. They have been widely developed in developing countries as a potential development models as natural resources and support of local society economically (OTA, 1992). At the moment, agrotourism has successfully developed in many countries, for instance Switzerland, New Zealand, France, Netherlands, Australia, and Austria (Rilla 1999). In Indonesia, there are eight provinces trying to develop agrotourism such as North Sumatera with rubber and palm plantations, Riau with cacao plantations, West Java by botanical gardens, Central Java and Daerah Istimewa Yogjakarta by salak pondoh agrotourism in Sleman, East Java by sugar plantations, Nusa Tenggara Barat by Rinjani ecotourism, Middle of Kalimantan and West of Kalimantan by palm plantations. Currently, they are still simply managed with limited facilities and are not developed on community-based model, and have not been well promoted (Indonesian Agriculture Department, 2005). Previously, agrotourism attraction was only interpreted as panorama attractions and plantations area, but now agrotourism has been interpreted as a linkage system between tourism and agriculture sectors as well as a model of region development (Indonesia Agriculture Department, 2005). Application of Agrotourism Agrotourism is highly dependent on the type of agricultural activity that is practiced in that particular area. In other words, this means that not all agrotourism destinations in the world provide the same agricultural activities. So in this subtopic, we are going to introduce and discuss about some famous agrotourism destinations in our country, Malaysia. This will definitely exposed us the similarities and differences among the agrotourism destinations throughout the world. First of all, let us look at Malaysias agrotourism spots. There are some famous examples of destinations such as: (i) Cameron Highland (ii) Taman Pertanian Sabah (iii) Parit Jawa Johor (i) Cameron Highland Cameron Highlands is Malaysias premier hill resort. Located in the state of Pahang, on the Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia, at 1524m above sea level, it is the largest of the Malaysian hill resorts. Much of its appeal lies in the net sprawling tea plantations which date back to 1929, as well as terraced flower gardens, strawberry farms, orchard and vegetable gardens. Being a popular hill resort, Cameron Highlands is well-developed with visitor amenities, tourist attractions, activities and a range of accommodation for a comfortable, leisurely holiday in cool invigorating climate. The cool climate which never ranged more than 20 degree Celsius, along with its fertile soil also attracts tourist from various places. Initially, the virgin jungle cleared for cultivation of tea bushes. Thus began Boh Estate, the first highland tea plantation in the country. Subsequently, other tea estates were opened, among them, the Blue Valley and Bharat plantations. The highland was also found to be conducive for the commercial cultivation of vegetables, flowers and fruits such as oranges and strawberries. The increasing popularity of Cameron Highlands in recent years has attracted the development of more tourism facilities and spots to cater to the growing number of visitors. The practice of agrotourism can be observed in various agricultural places which is well equipped with facilities in Cameron Highlands. This is important as the combination of both agriculture and tourist attraction forms agrotourism. There are many activities and places to be visited in Cameron Highlands in the context of agrotourism such as: (a) Sungai Palas Tea Estate It is one of the four tea states on the highlands, also produces the world famous BOH TEA. Tourists may travel 1 km into this estate where the factory is located. Resident guides will introduce the complex processes involved in the production of fragrant tea. These include the picking of tea leaves and the intricate art of brewing a good cup of tea. Tourists can even purchase some tea, the main produce of the highland, as a souvenir. (b) Apiary- Honeybee Farm Apiary- Honeybee farm is a small cottage industry for the production of honey. It is a garden ere some 25 varieties of flowers have been cultivated not for sale, but as a food supply for honey bees in search of nectar and pollen. Honey, believe it contain amazing ingredients for treating ailments such as insomnia, lethargy, skin diseases and even impotence. (c) Strawberry Farm Strawberries are another unique and proud product of the Highlands, seen as a trademark of the hill resort. The variety is known as FRESNO. Tourist will not leave the farm without a jar of strawberry jam. (d) Flower Nurseries Fresh flowers are cultivated in the highlands and are a leading export. Most of the flowers are grown in Brinchang. Bloom like roses, chrysanthemum, carnations, dahlia, geranium and everlasting flowers are grown in the nurseries. No visit to the highlands is complete without purchasing some of these colourful cuts to take back home. (e) Vegetable Farm Cameron Highlands is the nations prime producer of fresh vegetables, with some of the produce exported to neighbouring countries. Most of the vegetable farms can be spotted from the road along Brinchang to Tringkap. Cabbages, cauliflower, tomatoes, carrots, leeks, parsley and pepper are grown here. Purchases can be made at the vegetable stalls. (ii) Taman Pertanian Sabah Taman Pertanian Sabah is part of the 1500 acres of the Agriculture Research Station, Lagud Sebrang Tenom which is administered and owned by the Agriculture Department Sabah. It is a complex consisting of the Agriculture Research Station, Seed production Centre for Cash Crop, Farmers Training Centre and Taman Pertanian Sabah itself. The Park sprawled over an area of 500 acres. The park was first opened to visitors in October 2000, and was officially launched by the former Prime Minister of Malaysia Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad on the 25 March, 2001. With its rich biodiversity, the Park has a magnificent collection for indigenous and introduced plants species. It is also a conservation centre for native Orchids of Borneo. This park would become a heritage for the next generation and this will help to educate people in nature conservation and the preservation of natural rainforest through cultivation of trees, shrubs, plants and flowers. The lush greenery, multitude species of plants or flowers of endemic to Borneo Island and very rare, panoramic view of the lakes, captivating landscaped gardens provide an excellent base to expand your knowledge and ideal environment for those who seek peace, quiet and tranquility away from stressed and urban noise. This park also provides a great trekking ground as well as nature walks and jungle activities. The park is blessed with Mother Natures treasures. The park is a showcase of integrated activities carried out by all the Departments and Agencies under the Ministry of Agriculture Development and Food Industry. It also serves as a training and education centre for agriculture, horticulture, apiculture, seed production, forestry, fishery and animal husbandry. It is divided into four key areas: (a) Agriculture This included Living Crop Museum, Demonstration Farms, Agro forestry, Bee Centre and Germplasm collection. (b) Horticulture This include Native Orchid Centre, Hybrid Orchid, Evolution garden, Model Garden and Ornamental Garden (c) Animal Husbandry This included Animal Park and Animal Farm. (d) Fisheries This included Freshwater Fishing. Objectives of Taman Pertanian Sabah are firstly, as a major Agrotourism centre in the state. Secondly, to provide demonstration farms for Agricultural activities, Animal breeding and Fisheries. Thirdly, to serve as a centre for training and demonstration on Agriculture, Horticulture, Fishery, Apiculture, Seed Technology, Forestry and Animal Husbandry. Next is to provide facilities for nature-based recreational activities and the final objective is to promote awareness and love for nature. (iii) Parit Jawa Johor The following agrotourism destination that i recommended is a place which situated On the western coast of Johor, lies a small town called Parit Jawa. The main attraction here especially during the October-March migration season, is the birdlife. Despite the busy river mouth near the jetty the bird fauna seems unperturbed. The most noticeable of the birds are the Lesser Adjutants of the family of Storks, by sheer virtue of their endangered status and size. Standing at 120 cm tall, with a white body and dark grey wings this species is unmistakable. Its head is virtually bald, apart from a sparse covering of fine hair-like feathers. There are only 2000 odd numbers left in the world and its cousin, the Greater Adjutant, not found in Malaysia, is critically endangered with only 500 odd left in the wild. To be able to sight these amazing prehistoric looking birds is worth the weekend to this classic, pre-war-looking town of Parit Jawa. Birdlife The main attraction of Parit Jawa, especially during the October-March migration season, is the birdlife.  Though there is a regular traffic of fishing boats winding its way through the muddy channels, and though there are local people going about their business near the jetty the bird fauna seems unperturbed.  The most noticeable of the birds are the Lesser Adjutants, by sheer virtue of their size.  Standing at 120 cm tall, with a white body and dark grey wings this species is unmistakable. Comically, its head is virtually bald, apart from a sparse covering of fine hair-like feathers.  Ã‚   Active during the day, these storks feed on fish and amphibians such as the Crab-eating Frog. Once seized, the prey is subjected to a series of stabs with its powerful beak, before being swallowed whole.  At nights the storks roost in mangrove trees along the coast.   Nesting occurs mainly during the dry season, either in small colonies or as single nests.     Ã‚  Other shorebirds not commonly seen in Malaysia but which may be sighted at Parit Jawa include the Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris, the Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata and the Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes.  Ã‚   Egrets and smaller herons are easily seen, including the Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus.  The Striated Heron Butorides striatus is very common, and is often seen perched close to the jetty or stalking small fish around the moored fishing boats.   Flocks of terns are often seen following fishing vessels back to harbour, swooping down to pluck small fish from the waters churned up by the boats propellers.   Kingfishers are common too, including migrants such as the Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis and the Black-capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata; there are numerous sticks or posts close to the jetty where they like to perch.  Ã‚   Fishing Village For visitors unfamiliar with the laid-back charms of rural Malaysia the fishing village of Kuala Parit Jawa serves as a fine example.   The tidal inlet is crowded with wooden vessels which fish the muddy waters of the Straits of Malacca, and there are a number of open-air seafood restaurants specialising in spicy fish recipes.   Add to that a couple of brightly coloured Chinese temples and modest Malay kampung houses surrounded by banana, papaya and durian orchards and you have a scene of rural tranquility. Mud and Mangroves Beyond the rickety wooden jetty at the mouth of Kuala Parit Jawa is a wide expanse of mud, which is  exposed at low tide.   The coastal mudflats of the Straits of Malacca are rich in organic content, supporting an abundance of invertebrate life including worms, snails, bivalves, crabs and prawns.   In turn these food groups support a rich web of higher species including fish such as mudskippers, reptiles such as water snakes and monitors, and a wide range of bird species.  Ã‚  Mammals too live in the adjacent mangroves; groups of  Long-tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis regularly venture out of the mangroves and onto the mudflats, probably to feed upon crabs hence their other name Crab-eating Macaque.   The Oriental Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cinerea can also be sighted here.   Implications of Agrotourism Agrotourism has contributed much to both the economic and social sector in our country development. However, there are positive and negative implications of agrotourism. First of all, agrotourism contributes lots in improving the economy of the local communities. When we are promoting about agrotourism, we are actually promoting both the agriculture and tourism as they are combined in this sector. Places of agriculture will sell the products and induce the tourism of the place at the same time. As a result, tourists will buy the agriculture products and spending for tour cost such as accommodation as well. Besides, agrotourism will help to increase the value of the village. For instance, the residents can provide home stay-themed-accommodation for the tourists. Home stay is a form of program that allows the tourists to live with a local family to experience their lifestyle. Besides this program, by spending on the service provided or products bought, the tourists can increase the incomes of the residents in rural area. This additional income will help to raise the status of the residents. Thus, the poverty rate in rural area can be decreased. Other  opportunity  generated from agrotourism is providing local employments. The residents of rural area, especially the youths, can work on accommodation service, tour guide service, restaurant or handicraft industry. This will decrease the migration of youths to cities. Thus, agrotourism helps improving the social situations, particularly poverty alleviation, decreasing unemployment and declining urbanization. Generating agrotourism-related businesses  is the most potential opportunity of agrotourism development. Due to the increasing amount of the tourists, traditional cakes or chips are produced in order to introduce the local food to them. In the handicraft industry, souvenir such as batik and canes products are made to sell to the tourists. To maintain the amount of visitors, agricultural product improvements and stimulations of tourism-related  enterprises are done. Last but not least, abandoned land can be developed in the practice of agrotourism. The development of agrotourism brings about the utilization of lands. These lands can turn out to be a new tourist attraction spot. They can be used as aquaculture rearing, orchard farm or recreational park. Nevertheless, agrotourism has its negative effects towards the environment when it is over-developed. Climatic change is one of the major problems which the agrotourism sector caused. Recently, we can see the global temperature is increasing drastically from year to year. The best example is Cameron Highland, a place that practice agrotourism. It was known as a cold place but now, the temperature is actually increasing. This has caused the crop yield of the agriculture products such as vegetable and fruits to decrease because these plants are only suitable in temperate condition. Another negative effect that we can see is the pollution problem. Extensive agrotourism activities have released polluting by-products which results in environmental problems. The increasing number of tourists causes air pollution in a particular area as they using vehicles which release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These polluting gases are emitted into the atmosphere and translate into the acid rain. Acid rain has adverse affect on the plants, fresh water and soil because it can kills some of the living organisms. Besides, the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides also result in soil pollution. Excessive use of chemical pesticides which exceed permissible limit causes undesirable health effects and reduces biodiversity. Continuous use of fertilizer that contains heavy metals such as cadmium in phosphate rocks will pollute the soil and render the crops to be toxic. When the rain falls, the pollutants in soil will be brought to the river along with the rain, which will then cause water pollution. In addition, increases in use of chemical fertilizer results in higher level of nitrates being washed from the soil into the water ecosystem. This causes an excessive enrichment of the water, eutrophicaton, leading to rapid algal growth that creates oxygen deficit and killing of aquatic life. This chain reaction will further affect our ecosystem and biodiversity. When agrotourism is allowed to develop without proper planning, deforestation might happen. As this sector is growing rapidly, more and more land is required. So, the limited availability of land will lead to deforestation. Deforestation will brings to decrease in the wildlife population and at a more critical state, the biodiversity of the area will be affected. Consequently, there will be agricultural mismanagement which results in less arable land for agriculture and at the meantime, affect the agrotourism sector. Constraints of Agrotourism Lack of promotion is another constraint of agrotourism. Advertisement related to agrotourism is not established to a wider range of places. People will not have much information about the agrotourism places. Besides, the pamphlets that provide incomplete information will confuse the tourists. The information given may not be interesting or fascinating enough to attract the tourists. Furthermore, many places are lack of tour guides to introduce the places to the tourists. These will deter them from visiting the agrotourism spot. The authorities should promote the uniqueness of each village to strengthen the destination by combining with other related activities to reach the goals of agrotourism. Facilities also play an important role in the development of agrotourism. The hardest barriers of agrotourism development are inadequate infrastructures, limited public facilities and imperfect human resource skills. It will be a trouble when the facilities such as transportation, hotel and toilet do not fulfill the tourists demands. Another problem in agrotourism is insufficient government supports. Due to the small amount of governmental expenditure on research and development of agrotourism, technical assistance and support, as well as agro-marketing, agrotourism always faces problems in developing. Government empowerment, investment in agricultural sectors, infrastructure development, human skill improvement, public facilities development, and local communities empowerment and involvement need to be immediately committed to apply an ideal agrotourism. Besides, the younger generation is the important factor in the development of agrotourism. However, they are not concerned and interested about the greenery. From their point of view, agrotourism spot is not an interesting place to travel and it is not worth to go for such an unmemorable and uncomfortable trip. Water World or Extreme Park will draw more attention from them. Also, they are not interested to work in the agrotourism sector. Fresh graduates are not enthusiastic about the job in agrotourism as they thought it is not well-paid compared to the professional sector. As a consequence, there is no new generation to take over this sector. Lastly, scarce investment is a big problem for agrotourism sector. It is more risky to invest in this sector compared to the other sectors which are stable in development. Investors are less likely to invest in agrotourism as this sector is not a popular trend in the world yet. All in all, the government, non-governmental organizations, and even the people of our country should do their best to contribute to agrotourism. The government should not just fork out money in maintenance. Instead, they should find alternatives in supporting the development of agrotourism. Solutions to solve the constraints and implement to improve this sector should be their priority concern. Ways to Improve Agrotourism In Malaysia Agrotourism and homestay programmes provided opportunities for local involvement and additional sources of income. A total of 19 agro-tourism locations were developed with the participation of farmers and fishermen during the Seventh Plan period. The products included day visits, farm-stay and agro-tourism packages. Agrotourism is rapidly carving a niche in Malaysia, especially as the country has a wealth of products to offer locals and visitors alike. Agricultural tourism, as it is formally known, helps by improving incomes and economic potentials of small farms, rural communities and agro-based ventures throughout the country. Visitors can also help with the locals daily chores, feeding the ducks, tending to the vegetables and see how the local communities thrive in todays fast-paced world. There are also homestays where visitors can discover more of local agrotourism practices. There are also fruit farms and parks where locals and visitors can learn more of agroutourism in Malaysia. In Malaysia, an agriculture park measuring over 10000 hectares has been opened, showing visitors how Malaysian agriculture has developed. For example, Cameron Highland located at Pahang and Dusun d Paradise that is situated in Melaka. These places have become tourist hotspot as it offer variety of activity and different experience for tourist. Malaysia Agriculture, Horticulture and Agrotourism ( MAHA ) is the main organization that promotes the practice of agrotourism. Today, the industry is still growing and need a lot of improvement to achieve optimum benefit. Supportive government policies are one of the ways of improvement. It maintains a business environment with oppurtunities for growth and profits have made agrotourism in Malaysia an attractive sector. The private sector in Malaysia is encouraged to become partners with the public sector in achieving the nations development objectives. Governments commitment to maintain a business environment should be the main objective that provides companies with the opportunities for growth and profits. Government can also pay constant feedback from the business community through channels of consultation such as regular government- private sector dialogues. These allow the various business communities to air their views and to contribute towards the formulation of better agrotourism. Air, land and sea transportation will be continuously upgraded to facilitate accessibility and the growth of the tourism industry. The comfort, safety and security of tourists are crucial for the success of the agrotourism industry. The government will increase security patrols, especially in remote tourist resorts, to ensure the safety of tourists. At the same time, adherence to safety measures in the transportation of passengers by road, rail, sea and air will remain a top priority. Operators, guides and instructors in the tourism business will need to be more conscious of the well-being of tourists and strive to ensure their comfort and safety. In addition, further efforts will be made to provide tourists with quality goods and services at reasonable prices. Over the years, extensive promotional campaigns have been engineered both locally and overseas to attract tourists from around the world. Despite the economic slowdown, the tourism industry remains strong. Today, Malaysia is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Asia. This will allow the agrotourism industry to continuously expanding. Government must take initiative, which are undertaken by its official tourism promotional board, Tourism Malaysia. This will create potential investment opportunities in many areas. Tourism Malaysia has established video clips in local television programme to promote agrotourism. Stable political condition is also essential for marketing in agrotourism even for major tourist attractions. Government should ensure the political condition is always stable so as to allow the continuous of tourist flowing into the country, thus promoting agrotourism. Besides that, this will make investor feel secure and allow them to expand the field safely. Malaysia government should offers investors a young, educated and productive workforce at costs competitive with the other countries in Asia. This will allow the investors to develop and practice agrotourism in a more convenient way. Thus, this will attract more investors to develop in Malaysia and directly contribute to the countrys economy. The investors also need to play their role to improve the practice of agrotourism. They should provide better infrastructure for their customers such as transports, accommodations and catering facilities. They must provide good transport links because even attractive regions can be almost impossible to market for tourism if they are not accessible from the population centres. Investors should ensure that the agriculture they planted must be in healthy condition and always fresh to attract more people to come and have a tour. Investors can cooperate with government to create partnership with travel agency of other country to promote local agrotourism. Tour agency can provide attractive tour packages and promotion for the tourist where is the investor will give cheaper price for the agent. This is a form of symbiosis interaction between the tour agent and investor. Both parties will get benefit from the interaction. Investor must provide wide d

Food as Sign and Code :: Wendy Leeds-Hurwitz Semiotics Essays

Food as Sign and Code What do you think of when you see or smell your favorite food? On one hand the sight or smell of that food might trigger hunger, or even a memory of the last time you shared that meal with a loved one. The point is, the smell or sight of our favorite food would trigger a different thought or feeling in each of us. This is an example of Semiotics. Semiotics is defined as "anything that can stand for something else." Roland Barthes was one of Europe's most renowned theorists of semiology. Barthes believed that in order to generate a complete sign, there were two parts that have to work together. These two parts are known as the signifier and the signified. A good example of this is your favorite food you thought of earlier, it would act as a signifier, and the thought that came to your head when thinking of this food would act as the signified. Together they create a sign. This is just a simple example of a complete sign. In her book Semiotics and Communication: Signs, Codes, Cultures, Wendy Leeds-Hurwitz describes the wide use of food as signs, and also as social codes. The reason foods are so useful as signs and social codes is because they are separable, easily adaptive to new environments, and it is not difficult to cook, or eat for that matter. Food is a major part of our daily lives, Not only for survival, but it plays a substantial social role in our lives. We will look deeper into the semiotics of food, how food is used as identity markers, and also the role that foods play in social change in our lives. First let us start with the semiotics of food. Food as Semiotics Food is very accessible. Therefore, it has been one of the top choices used in explaining semiotic theory. An important contributor to the semiotics of food is Mary Douglas. She applied her assumptions of semiotics of food as a social code. Douglas and her assistant generated a hierarchical description of the events when people take food. This description is listed below. 1. Food Event-- it is the most general; it refers to an occasion when food is taken, without prejudice as to whether it constitutes a meal or not. 2. Structured Events-- this refers to social occasions that have been thoroughly organized.

Major Changes In The Way Sociologists Have Understood Religion During The 20th Century

The word religion is derived from the Latin noun religio, which denotes both earnest observances of ritual obligations and an inward spirit of reverence. In modern usage, religion covers a wide spectrum of meanings that reflect the enormous variety of ways the term can be interpreted. Religion in this understanding includes a complex of activities that cannot be reduced to any single aspect of human experience. It is a part of individual life but also of group dynamics. Religion is a sacred engagement with that which is believed to be a spiritual reality.Religion is a worldwide phenomenon that has played a part in all human culture and is so much broader, more complex category than the set of beliefs or practices found in any single religious tradition. An adequate understanding of religion must take into account its distinctive qualities and patterns as a form of human experience, as well as the similarities and differences in religion across human cultures. According to antiquity o f religious study, the first Western attempts to understand and document religious phenomena were made by the Greeks and the Romans.As early as the 6th century BC, Greek philosopher Xenophanes noted that different cultures visualized the gods in different ways. In the following century, Greek historian Herodotus recorded the wide range of religious practices he encountered in his travels, comparing the religious observances of various cultures, such as sacrifice and worship, with their Greek equivalents. Roman historians Julius Caesar and Cornelius Tacitus similarly recorded the rites and customs of peoples that they met on their military campaigns. By the end of the 19th century, scholars were making religion an object of systematic inquiry.German scholar, Friedrich Max Miller’s comparative approach, that every religion possessed some measure of truth, was adopted in many European and Japanese universities. In addition, field anthropologists had begun to compile firsthand ac counts of the religions of people who previously had been dismissed as savages. The study of tribal religions contributed a great deal to the general analysis of the role of religion in human societies. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scholars had begun to pose basic questions about the origin and development of religious ideas.Scholars questioned how religion began and the stages of its evolution. Some maintained that it originated with animism (belief in spirits), then evolved into the notion that there were many gods (polytheism), and ultimately emerged as the ideal of a single god (monotheism). Others held that religion began in a sense of awe at the impressive activities of nature, in a feeling of reverence for the spirits of the dead, or in an attempt to overcome mortality. Many other important questions about the nature of religion were addressed during this period: Can religion be divided into so-called primitive and higher types?Is religion a product of psycholog ical needs and projections? Is it a function of political and social control? Such questions have continued to generate a large number of theories. Romanian scholar Mircea Eliade, who taught at the University of Chicago from 1957 to 1985, emphasized that religious people experience the ordinary world differently from non-religious people because they view it as a sacred place. In Eliade’s view, believing in the divine foundations of life, transforms the significance of natural objects and activities.He believed that for the homo religious (Latin for â€Å"religious man,† a term used by Eliade to designate a person who lives according to a religious worldview), time, space, the earth, the sky, and the human body can all come to have a symbolic, religious meaning. Like Rudolf Otto, Eliade held that the study of religion must not reduce to something merely social or psychological, but must take seriously the idea that in the believer’s world the experience of sacre dness defines a distinctive reality. Modernity has posed acute challenges to traditional religions.In the 1906s membership in mainstream Christian denominations began to decline, and candidates for the priesthood were less numerous. For a large number of people in modern societies, religion is neither good nor bad but simply irrelevant, given the many alternative ways to find meaning in various forms of cultural pursuits, ethical ideals, and lifestyles. These challenges to religion are partly a result of the prestige of science. The sciences describe a universe without reference to deities, the soul, or spiritual meaning.In addition, critical studies of biblical history have demonstrated that the Bible is not unique among ancient religious and historical documents. For example, the biblical stories of the Garden of Eden and the Deluge (universal flood) are common to other ancient Middle Eastern religions. Other factors that have contributed to a decline in religious participation in the 20th century include the presentation of religion as a prescientific form of superstitious thinking, as a source of political control and divisiveness, as a confirmation of established patriarchal values, or as an emotional crutch.In addition, many families are no longer able to maintain stable religious traditions because they are disconnected from traditional, supportive religions or as a result of mixed or nonreligious marriages. Another influence has been the loss of community and social commitment that has followed in the wake of increased mobility. Frequent changes of location can result in a sense of impermanence or instability. This is particularly true of a move from town to city, which often results in the loss of stable community structure.Social uprooting can lead to religious uprooting because religious affiliation is closely related to social ties. Evangelicalism in its various forms, including fundamentalism, offers a different response to modernity. Conservative movements, which have appeared internationally in every major religious tradition, have gained vitality by protesting what they see as the conspicuous absence of moral values in secular society. In times of anxiety and uncertainty, such movements present scripture as a source of doctrinal certainty and of moral absolutes.Against the secularism of the day, evangelical movements have succeeded in creating their own alternative cultures and have acquired considerable political influence. For all its challenges to the traditional religious identity, modernity has at the same time created new spiritual opportunities. Thousands of new religious movements emerged in the 20th century, offering alternative forms of community to people otherwise removed from past associations and disenchanted with modern values.Collectively, these new religions offer a large number of options, and addressing virtually every conceivable type of spiritual need. In a sense, modernity has created needs and probl ems for which new movements are able to present them as solutions. Some offer ethnic revitalization; others, techniques of mediation and self-improvement; and still others, have the power of alternative or spiritual forms of healing. Buddhist- and Hindu-derived movements continue to have considerable followings among Westerners searching for truths beyond Judeo-Christian tradition.Further, in a world where home life has become less stable, an international movement such as the Unification Church emphasizes the holiness and divine restoration of the institution of the family. Currently, one of the most rapidly growing religious movements is Pentecostalism, which takes its name from the festival day when the first Christian community felt the power of the Holy Spirit pour out on them. Pentecostalism’s grass roots services provide direct, ecstatic spiritual experiences.A quite different but also widespread form of spirituality is that of the so-called New Age Movement, which off ers individuals the opportunity to reconnect with mystical dimensions of the self and thus with the wider cosmos-relationships that are typically obscured by secular culture and often are not addressed in biblical traditions. In summary, there have been many changes in the way religion is viewed in the 20th century, in all aspects of sociological templates, that is, historical, structural, cultural, and critical aspects.