Company Valuation Methods. the Most Common Errors in...

Pablo Fernà ¡ndez. IESE Business School Company valuation methods. The most common errors in valuations Company valuation methods. The most common errors in valuationsâˆâ€" Pablo Fernà ¡ndez PricewaterhouseCoopers Professor of Corporate Finance IESE Business School Camino del Cerro del Aguila 3. Telephone 34-91-357 08 09. 28023 Madrid, Spain e-mail: fernandezpa@iese.edu In this paper, we describe the four main groups comprising the most widely used company valuation methods: balance sheet-based methods, income statement-based methods, mixed methods, and cash flow discounting-based methods. The methods that are conceptually â€Å"correct† are those based on cash flow discounting. We will briefly comment on other methods since -even though they†¦show more content†¦Value should not be confused with price, which is the quantity agreed between the seller and the buyer in the sale of a company. This difference in a specific company’s value may be due to a multitude of reasons. For example, a large and technologically highly advanced foreign company wishes to buy a well-known national company in order to gain entry into the local market, using the reputation of the local brand. In this case, the foreign buyer will only value the brand but not the plant, machinery, etc. as it has more advanced assets of its own. However, the seller w ill give a very high value to its material resources, as they are able to The reader interested in methods based on value creation measures can see Fernandez (2002, chapters 1, 13 and 14). The reader interested in valuation using options theory can see Fernandez (2001c). 1 2 Pablo Fernà ¡ndez. IESE Business School Company valuation methods. The most common errors in valuations continue producing. From the buyer’s viewpoint, the basic aim is to determine the maximum value it should be prepared to pay for what the company it wishes to buy is able to contribute. From the seller’s viewpoint, the aim is to ascertain what should be the minimum value at which it should accept the operation. These are the two figures that face each other across the table in a negotiation until a price is finally agreed on, whichShow MoreRelatedAccounting And Financial Methods And Tools1745 Words   |  7 PagesFirm valuation relates to accounting in that it uses a combination of both accounting and financial methods and tools. Some of the accounting tools used includes the valuation of firms’ assets, valuation of a firm’s profit and loss and also the valuation of a firm’s obligations, which are liabilities. 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How valid is the discounted present value approach? How can one value a company as a going concern, and how does this change in the context of a potential acquisition, or when the company faces financial stress? Finding a value for a company is no easy task -- but doing so is an essential componentRead MoreReal Estate Appraisal: a Review of Valuation Methods8210 Words   |  33 Pages PRACTICE BRIEFING Real estate appraisal: a review of valuation methods School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece, and Jonathan Edwards Consulting, University of Reading, UK Keywords Market surveys, Real estate, Forecasting, Estimation, Assets valuation Abstract The valuation of real estate is a central tenet for all businesses. Land

The Poisonwood Bible By Barbara Kingsolver - 1961 Words

The poisonwood Bible is a book about identity, growing up and family. The main characters throughout the book grow and learn to become new people through new relationships they develop while in the Congo as well as through struggles they face while in the Congo. Barbara Kingsolver uses the literary elements of plot, the characters, and point of view to develop the characterization and relationships between the Price family in the Poisonwood Bible. Throughout the book Kingsolver uses different aspects of the plot to show development of the Price family and to offer us important information about them. One of the important plot aspects that Kingsolver uses throughout the story comes during Orleanna’s point of view. Told from the present†¦show more content†¦This shows the readers how much the Congo really changed Orleanna. The fact that through the rest of the book the story is told in chronological order and then during her parts is told from after the Congo allows the story to be developed not only in a sense of what is happening now and how it affects the characters, but also allows us to understand the effects of the characters both before and after the Congo as we see with Nathan and how he was a changed man even before the Congo. Had her point of view been told in chronological order like the rest of the story we wouldn’t have seen such a development of specific characters like Nathan and even hersel f because we only would’ve know what was going on in the story and some small background information. Another plot aspect that Kingsolver uses to develop the relationships in the story is the use of a meaningful climax to change the path of the story. The climax of this story is when Ruth May dies from the Mamba snake bite. This is important to the development of the characters throughout the story because throughout the story we see that Orleanna is very complacent to Nathan and doesn’t really have a spine when it comes to protecting herself or her kids from him. Unfortunately for the family it takes on of the kids dying for Orleanna to realize that she can’t listen to him becauseShow MoreRelatedThe Poisonwood Bible By Barbara Kingsolver1124 Words   |  5 PagesIn the novel The Poisonwood Bible, written by Barbara Kingsolver, the reader is introduced to the Price family, Baptist missionaries who are attempting to â€Å"Christianize† the country of Cong o, more specifically the village of Kilanga. As the story progresses, the family realizes that they are not changing the Congo; instead, the Congo is changing them. The development of the characters within the novel is due to the instrument of cruelty. Although distasteful to regard it as such, cruelty motivatesRead MoreThe Poisonwood Bible By Barbara Kingsolver1352 Words   |  6 Pagessuccessful. In the beginning of The Poisonwood Bible, Orleanna introduces to the readers in a third person’s point of view, â€Å"The daughters march behind her, each one tensed to fire off a woman’s heart on a different path to glory or damnation† (5). Orleanna, a mother who lives throughout the story of The Poisonwood Bible, acknowledges how women, in great numbers, are found walking down the path of trying to be successful. The Poisonwood Bible, by Barbara Kingsolver, involves the Price family of 6, whichRead MoreThe Poisonwood Bible By Barbara Kingsolver1142 Words   |  5 PagesThe Poisonwood Bible Nowadays, in today’s society, survival is considered the basic instinct of all humans. 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The novel, The Poisonwood Bible by Barbara Kingsolver, shows the paternalistic society in which the Price family lives in. In 1959 an obstinate Baptist minister named Nathan Price drags his wife and four daughters deep into the heart of the Congo on a mission to save the unenlightenedRead MoreThe Poisonwood Bible By Barbara Kingsolver1807 Words   |  8 Pageshalf of humanity, for the benefit of all†. Feminism, the act of advocating for female rights in order for them to be equal to those of men, has been an issue for hundreds of years that is sadly lacking present-day progression. 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In the novel The Poisonwood Bible, By Barbara Kingsolver, each member of the Price family deals with a personal guilt either gained while on their mission in the Congo or long before. This novel exemplifies the different types of guilt the Price family experienced throughout their stay inRead MoreThe Poisonwood Bible By Barbara Kingsolver2015 Wo rds   |  9 PagesThe Poisonwood Bible, written by Barbara Kingsolver, details the experiences of a missionary family in the Congo, narrated by the Price women. Multiple questions are introduced over the course of the novel, some being answered and others not so much. One important theme in the novel is the influence of surroundings on the characters, specifically Leah Price. Leah Price arguably went through the most change and development as a result of her surroundings and environment. Her moral, psychological change

A short story with a twist The Accident. Essay Example For Students

A short story with a twist: The Accident. Essay As Carol stood in the bathroom she knew what the result would be, her hands were shaking as she reached the first step of the stairs. John' she shouted. John came and stood at the bottom of the stairs with a worried look on his face Whats wrong? he asked. By now Carol had already reached the bottom of the stairs, she gulped then said in a quiet voice youre a daddy. The next nine months were to be a test of courage and strength both for Carol and John When the birth certificate came through It read: Twins born to Mr.. ND Mrs.. Walker, iris twin (Emily) born at 6:pm, 1 6th/May/1959, The second twin (Katie) born at 6:pm, 16th/May/1959. The next 18 years brought joy, sadness and grief to the Walker family. At 2 years Emily said her first word sister at 3 years Katie took her first step. It was the afternoon of 1963 the hottest day in the year, Carol was making tea in the kitchen, and John was in the back sunning himself when it happened. We will write a custom essay on A short story with a twist: The Accident. specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Emily somehow opened the front door for fresh air when Katie came running by her, straight onto the road, she fell over and twisted her ankle, Just then David Burns came shooting round the corner, she screamed out for her sister but It was too late, David slammed on the brakes he was Just too slow, the last words said by Katie were Emily I love you, then he hit Katie. The worst thing was that Emily saw the whole thing, In graphic detail: she ran inside, tears streaming down her face, she ran into the kitchen Mum, Mum! Its Katie, Shes hurt Where is she? On the rood, Oh my lord Carol rushed to the back of the house He leapt out of his sent and ran on to the rood, where Katie was lying, when he held ere she was cold and blood was dripping down her head, he tried resuscitation but it just didnt work, then he Just picked her up and carried her inside. He sat there in shock. He Just kept repeating My Little girl, itll be O. K, daddies little girl Carol called 911 then sot down. Emily Just kept on crying. This went on for 2 years. She blamed herself, she opened the door, if she hadnt opened Katie would be alive. Eleven years later (1974) she got a boyfriend Anthony Phillips (contradictory to popular belief). One stormy night. The night of April 25th 1977. Emily was at home watching Count Drachma when the doorbell rang. She got up, walked over to the door, but Just as she was about to open it, the lights went out. She thought Forget the door, Id better reset the fuse. So she went into the cellar, and reset the fuse. But when she came back upstairs, she felt a breeze, she checked the back door, locked, then she came into the living room, the front door woe wide open. But I distinctly remember not opening it? she utters So she shut the door and sat back down. A few minutes later she heard a creak behind her. Whos there. No one answered, she reported the question Who is there! Then she saw the shadow. She slowly arose from her choir; rushed into the kitchen, slammed the top drawer open, took the largest handiest knife. Just then the shadow reappeared again, suddenly the fuse went out, It went dark, then the figure lurched for her, she plunged the knife in, He fell to the floor, she felt a sharp object scrape against her arm, she reset the fuse. .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 , .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .postImageUrl , .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 , .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:hover , .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:visited , .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:active { border:0!important; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:active , .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96 .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua79f658adc5c0d78b5c63a4b1cdb3d96:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Teenage pregnancy EssayThen came back upstairs, it was then she realized it was Anthony. She realized He must hove come around for a chat, and the sharp object I felt, what was it? the end of the armchair. And in a state of shock she phoned the police, give me the police Department please Ill put you through DDCD answered yes. Detective Inspector Walter Charmers of the police department speaking? 1 1 1 Just killed my boyfriend within seconds the police had stormed the house. Emily was arrested: handcuffed and put in a police car. She was driven to the police station. Then she made a statement. And she thought that was it. But it wasnt. Antimonys father and mother decided to press Charges, they thought they had a good case She Just could not believe what as going on. The court dote was set for the 1 lath of October 1977. She turned up 1 oclock sharp. All rise for the honorable Judge White. She rose, the entire ordeal lasted 4 hours, with lawyers verbally bashing the truth into their liking. The Jury left the courtroom, when they re-entered, her heart was racing. 50 beats minute. We find the defendant guilty, of manslaughter and murder. The court room, went quiet apart from the sound of fear and disapproval, I sentence you to 20 years imprisonment, bang the hammer hit the stained wood. She was hauled to her cell. Dark, damp, on her right was a filthy toilet, on her left was a bed extremely uncomfortable and painful, and directly inferno of her was a badly gratified wall, She spent The next 20 years in a rotten run-down prison in scruffy cell 1 with bread nod water every day. Every week and every yew. And with, n those years her father died of cancer and her mother died in o car crash. Finally her triumph, the sweet smell of freedom, filled her lungs. She rushed home to see her parents. But they werent there, she asked her gibbers they died last year, didnt you know? she broke down into tears. she went bock home and wrote a poem: The old days are gone, and I cant bring them back When me and you were close together, All the memories I hove of you ore close to me. Mom + dad She stopped in her local shop for some flowers, but when she went to pay all she got were dirty looks from the customers and, the shopkeeper. Mr.. Jones had always been nice to me. When she paid for the flowers, Mr.. Jones seemed to snatch the money out of her hand. She walked up the street and into the cemetery. The cemetery was dark and cold and looked like it was in a world of its own. She went to the grove laid down the flowers, read the poem and buried it under the gravel, She said her last good-byes and went home, She got a bottle of 100 Aspirin and rote o note I am alone and responsible far my sisters death She lay on her parents bed, opened the bottle and swallowed. Her body began to shake tear come to her eye as she closed her eyes for the last time, sorry Sis Her arm fell off the bed. The bottle fell out of her hand. And the tear ran down her face

LTE Networks Essay Example

LTE Networks Essay LTE Networks Name: Institution: LTE Networks We will write a custom essay sample on LTE Networks specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on LTE Networks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on LTE Networks specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer 4G is the new generation of wireless networks that has evolved from the third generation of mobile broadband communication. It is based on integrating terminals, networks and applications to fulfill increased user demand. 4G comprises LTE technology, HSPA+ and WiMax technologies. It is a general term coined by the ITU due to the advancements of the respective technologies relative to the original 3G networks. LTE systems have been designed to correct the numerous flaws related to 3G systems. The LTE systems have also been targeted to provide new services for instance; HD Video streaming and high quality voice communication. A term used to describe 4G technology is MAGIC. Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere, Global mobility support, Integrated wireless solutions and Customized personal service. LTE mobile networks are expected to provide high usability, global coverage, and easier broadband connectivity. This will make it easier for Telecom companies to expand coverage and consumption to areas previously not covered by 3G networks. High network capacity and low cost user-oriented services are also expected with the rolling out of LTE services. 4G communications are based on the Open Wireless Architecture (OWA). This will ensure that a single terminal can seamlessly connect to local high-speed wireless systems. For instance, when in homes, airports or shopping malls, the terminal can switch to present wireless LAN networks. When the user moves to a mobile zone i.e. a highway, the terminal can automatically switch to wireless mobile networks e.g. WCDMA or GPRS. Implementation of high performance 4G broadband necessitates use of multiple antennas, at the base station and subscriber module. Multiple antenna technology enables high capacities suited for multimedia applications e.g. streaming videos. These technologies also increase range and reliability of such networks considerably. OFDM is preferred to single carrier solutions in implementation of LTE networks. This is due to lower complexity of equalizers for high delay spread channels. A broadband signal is broken down into several narrow band carriers (tones). Each carrier is more robust to multi-path propagation. A cyclic prefix is added to maintain orthogonality within the tones. The prefix usually has a length greater than the expected delay spread. With proper coding and interleaving across frequencies, multi-path is transformed into an OFDM system advantage. This is by yielding frequency diversity. OFDM can be efficiently implemented by use of Fast Fourier Transform (FFTs) algorithms at both the transmitter and receiver. At the receiver, FFT algorithms reduce the channel response to a multiplicative constant, on a tone-by-tone basis. With multiple input and multiple output (MIMO), the channel response becomes a matrix. As each tone can be independently equalized, the complexity of space-time equalizers is entirely avoided. Multi-path is maintained as an advantage for a MIMO-OFDM system. This is because frequency selectivity caused by multi-path significantly improves the rank distribution of the channel matrices across frequency tones. Therefore, capacity is increased to BTS-on-a-chip or System-in-Package. Background Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has become a popular technique for transmission of signals over wireless channels. It has been implemented in various ways for instance; digital audio broadcasting (DAB), digital video broadcasting( DVB-T), the IEEE 802.11a, a local area network (LAN) standard and the IEEE 802.16a, a metropolitan network (MAN) standard. OFDM is also being implemented for dedicated short-range communications (DSRC). It will facilitate roadside to vehicle communications as a potential candidate for fourth generation (4G) wireless systems. The man goal in development of next-generation wireless communication systems is increasing bit-rate (link throughput) as well as network capacity. OFDM translates a frequency-selective channel into a parallel collection of frequency flat sub channels. When knowledge of a channel is available at the transmitter, the OFDM transmitter can adapt its signaling methodology to meet the channel. Since OFDM utilizes a large set of narrowly spaced sub-channels, these adaptive strategies can approach the ideal water pouring capacity of a frequency-selective channel. This is achieved by use of adaptive bit loading technologies. Here, different sized signal constellations are transmitted onto the sub-carriers. All MIMO-OFDM receivers must perform time synchronization; frequency offset estimation and correction and finally, parameter estimation. Generally, this is carried out by use of a preamble composed of several training sequences. Important improvements in throughput can be achieved when multiple antennas are implemented at both the transmitter and receiver side, especially in a rich scattering environment. This has been shown for wireless communication links in flat-fading as well as frequency-selective fading channels, multiple-transmit, multiple-receive antenna, i.e. MIMO. For portrayal purposes, the techniques can be split into two groups: space-time coding (STC) AND space division multiplexing (SDM).STC improves the performance of the communication system by coding over the different transmitter branches. However, SDM achieves a higher throughput by transmitting independent data streams on the different transmit branches and at the same carrier frequency. A potential application of the MIMO principle is the next generation Wireless-LAN technology. The current WLAN standards are IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11g. These standards are based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). A potential high data rate extension of these standards could be based on MIMO. This leads to the promising combination of the data rate enhancement of SDM and the high spectral efficiency and robustness against frequency-selective fading and narrowband interference of OFDM. Wireless LAN systems have various advantages. One is that they are mainly deployed in indoor environments. Such environments are typically characterized by a richly scattered multi-path Implementation Preamble W-LAN is a packet-switched system with a random access protocol. This means that a receiver possesses no prior knowledge about packet-arrival times. The random nature of the arrival times as well as the high data rates necessitate the synchronization to be completed shortly after the start of the reception of a packet. To enable ‘quick’ synchronization, the data packet is normally preceded with a known sequence known as ‘the preamble’. The preamble is carefully designed to provide enough information for efficient packet detection, frequency offset estimation, symbol timing, and channel estimation. Once there is accurate knowledge of the MIMO channel elements, the MIMO processing can separate the signal components originating from the different transmit antennas. To approximate the MIMO channel, it is necessary that the sub-channels from the TX antennas be uniquely different from the RX antennas. For that to be achieved, the preambles on the different TX antennas must be orthogonal as well as shift-orthogonal, at least for the channel length. Time Synchronization: 1.) Frame Detection/Coarse Timing: The purpose for frame detection (FD) is to recognize the preamble in order to detect arrival of a packet. This preamble detection algorithm can also be used as a coarse timing (CT) algorithm. This is because it inherently provides a rough estimate of the packet’s starting point. Different data-aided FD algorithms have been proposed for OFDM. For instance, a simple MIMO extension of Schmidl’s timing offset algorithm was proposed. All these algorithms are based n the correlation between the repeated symbols constituting the preamble. 2.) Symbol Timing: The symbol timing in an OFDM system chooses where to place the start of the FFT window within the OFDM symbol. An OFDM system exhibits a guard interval (GI), making it somewhat robust against timing offsets. Non-optimal symbol timing will result into more ISI and inter-carrier interference (ICI) in delay spread environments. This will result in a decrease in performance. C. Frequency Synchronization It is necessary for the frequency synchronization to correct the frequency offset. This is due to the difference in oscillator frequencies at the transmitter and the receiver. D. Channel Estimation When time synchronization is performed at the receiver and after the received signals are corrected for the frequency offset, the channel can be estimated using the known training symbols within the preamble. When the timing is performed correctly, it can be known which received samples correspond to the timing part. Synchronization Tracking using Pilot Sub-carriers The processing of the preamble deals with the initial synchronization of the MIMO OFDM receiver. However, it is very likely that the frequency offset will vary during the packet’s reception. This makes solely initial frequency synchronization insufficient. Furthermore, the system will experience phase noise (PN) invoked by the combination of RF oscillator and the phase-locked loop (PLL). MIMO Detection Algorithms: Once a packet is recognized and the synchronization and channel estimation are done, the FFT begins retrieving the sub-carrier signals. MIMO detection is applied to these signals on a sub-carrier basis. In terms of spatial multiplexing, the MLD-based detection algorithm PAC SOMLD executes well. MIMO-OFMD Design Constraints The key channel characteristics influencing wireless broadband systems are channel dispersion, Rician K-factor, the Doppler effect, cross-polarization discrimination, antenna correlation and the condition number. Doppler Effect: The fixed wireless channel Doppler spectrum is significantly different from the mobile channel Doppler spectrum. For fixed wireless channels, it was found that the Doppler is in the 0.1-2 Hz frequency range. It also has close to exponential or rounded spectrum shape. However, for mobile wireless channels, the Doppler can be at around 100 Hz. It also has the Jake’s spectrum. Cross-Polarization Discrimination: The cross polarization discrimination (XPD) is defined as the ratio of the co-polarized average received power P2 to the cross-polarized average received power; P. XPD measures the separation between two transmission channels that use variant polarization orientations. The larger the XPD, the less energy is coupled between the cross-polarized channels. The XPD values were found to decrease with increasing distance. Antenna Correlation: Antenna correlation plays a paramount role in single-input multi-output (SIMO), multi-input single-output (MISO), and MIMO systems. If the complex correlation coefficient is relatively high (e.g. higher than 0.7), diversity and multiplexing gains can be significantly reduced (or completely diminished in the case of correlation of 1). Generally, it was discovered that the complex correlation coefficients are low, in the 0.1-0.5 range for properly selected base station and receiver antenna configurations. Condition Number: The condition number can be described as a ratio of the maximum and minimum Eigen values of the MIMO channel matrix. Large capacity gains from spatial multiplexing operations in MIMO wireless systems are possible. However, this is only when the statistical distribution of condition numbers mostly contains low values. LOS conditions often create undesirable MIMO matrix conditions (i.e. high condition numbers) that can be mitigated by use of dual-polarized antennas. For low BTS antennas, most propagation conditions are non-LOS with a considerable amount of scattering, in which case the multiplexing gains of MIMO systems are incredibly significant. Current obstacles Despite the aforementioned improvements over traditional 3G networks, 4G (specifically, LTE) faces numerous obstacles in its implementation today. First, its throughput though advantageous, put it at a huge disadvantage. The fast speeds provided risk network congestion due to growing popularity of mobile broadband. This is accentuated by the stagnant growth in capture of spectrum capacity. Modern wireless technologies also have performance limited to signal quality. Secondly, pricing has been used as a deterrent by Telecoms companies due to network capacity constraints. A gigabyte goes for around $10. Roaming also poses a problem to LTE technologies. This is because different countries use different LTE network bands. Consequently, mobile devices will most likely fall back to 3G, which is universal. Mobile broadband is mostly consumed by smartphones and tablets. LTE chips require significantly more power than their 3G counterparts do to run. Therefore, battery life comes up as a problem in early smartphones. This is accentuated by the fact that LTE phones consume data faster than their 3G counterparts do. Disadvantages LTE has several disadvantages. One, it is very expensive to set up. For starters, it requires a lot more base stations than their LMR equivalents (Land Mobile Radio). Secondly, LTE equipment is quite expensive to purchase and deploy. It requires a very skilled to implement. Such high costs force the Telecoms operators to pass them on to their customers. To use LTE networks, it is necessary for consumers to purchase new cell phones to make use of new network infrastructure. The LTE standard currently supports only packet switching, as it is an all-IP network. GSM, UMTS and CDMA networks however, circuit-switch their voice calls. This will force carriers to re-engineer their voice call networks, further driving up LTE adoption costs. The Future Current adoption of 4G is not as widespread as 3G. However, its future is already being seen by recent developments. In January 2013, the ITU approved two new standards; LTE-Advanced and Wireless MAN-Advanced. LTE-Advanced will succeed current LTE networks while WiMax networks will be followed by Wireless MAN-Advanced. LTE-Advanced has been designed to meet the current constraints facing LTE especially carrier capacity. It will not necessarily increase consumer speeds past LTE’s 100Mbps. However, it will improve the overall experience. LTE-Advanced will also feature four or more antennas in a mobile device. This will potentially boost speeds experienced and their reliability. However, current applications may not necessitate an increase in network speeds.

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